Assessing Deposits And Profitability Relationship Of Islamic Banking - Free Essay Example

The purpose of this research study is to analyze the impact of Islamic Banking Deposits (Investment, Savings and Current accounts) on the profitability measure ROE of the Islamic banking industry in Paksitan. For this purpose, time series data of eleven quarters covering the period 2007 to 2009 is taken for the required variables from State Bank of Pakistanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s quarterly editions of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Islamic banking bulletinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The results showed that all the deposit variables had a significant positive relation with the profitability of Islamic banks. The aim is to contribute to the literature on deposit-profitability relationship of Islamic banks. Islamic banking is a banking activity based on Islamic principles, which do not allow the paying and receiving of interest (ribaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢) and promotes profit sharing in the conduct of banking business. (Ghazali, 2008). According to the latest quarterly edition of State Bank of Pakistanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Islamic Banking Bulletinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?, the total Shariah-compliant assets worldwide have grown to about US$ 700 billion à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" with annual growth exceeding 10.0 percent during the past decade and are projected to grow to US$ 1.6 trillion by 2012. State Bank of Pakistanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s strategic plan for Islamic banking industry launched in 2008, aims to increase the size of the Islamic banking industry to 12.0 percent (of total banking assets) by 2012. Islamic financial institutions do not only play a vital role in resource mobilization, resource allocation and employment but are also actively involved in the course of implementing government monetary policy. Apart from offering nearly all traditional banking facilities, Islamic banks also assist domestic and international trades. Seeing the potential of the Islamic market, western conventional-based financial institutions such as Citibank, JP Morgan, Deutsche Bank, ABN Amro and American Express have introduced interest-free products to customers. Similarly, multinational corporations such as General Motors, IBM and Dewoo Corporation have already begun to use interest-free services.(Haron and Azmi, 2003). Studies that assess the influence of various factors that determine Islamic banks profitability are still at initial stage. Few attempts have up till now been made to empirically analyze the Islamic banksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ performance. In the Islamic banking literature, the work of Haron (1996a) was the first attempt to examine factors that contributed towards Islamic banksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ profitability. Most of the research used multiple regression analysis technique in measuring the relationship among the determining factors and profitability ratios. Extending the previous work in Islamic banksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ performance, this paper examines the strength of relationship between deposit variables and profitability of Islamic banks using univariate regression methodology. By studying the association between Islamic banksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ performance and the deposit variables, this paper contributes to the on-going discussion on the deposits and profitability relationship of Islamic banks. The paper is divided into seven sections. The literature review on determinants of Islamic bank performance is highlighted in Section 2. Section 3 examines the methodology used in analyzing the relationship between the deposits variables used in this study and the performance of Islamic banks. Section 4 presents the discussion and implication. The references are listed in section 5. The tables are listed in section 6 and figures in section 7. Literature Review The whole foundation of Islamic Finance is that the two sides of the equation (i.e. the fund-providers and the fund-users) work in agreement as partners, without depositors being assured of any return from those who use their money. In practice, Islamic banks draw approximately three-quarters of the capital from their depositors, and do not guarantee any precise level of return to these fund-providers. (Shubber and Alzafri,2008). Ghafoor (1995) states that all Islamic banks have three kinds of deposit accounts: current, savings and investment. Current or demand deposit accounts are almost the same as in all conventional banks. Deposit is assured. Savings deposit accounts function in different ways. In some banks, the depositors permit the banks to make use of their money but they attain a guarantee of being paid the complete amount back from the bank. Banks adopt a number of methods of inducing their customers to deposit with them, but profit is not promised. In others, savings accounts are treated as investment accounts but with less strict conditions as to withdrawals and minimum balance. Capital is not assured but the banks take care to invest capital from such accounts in fairly risk-free short-term projects. Therefore, lower profit rates are expected and that too only on a section of the average minimum balance on the ground that a high level of reserve funds need to be kept at all times to meet up withd rawal demands. Contrastingly, Investment deposits are accepted for a predetermined or indefinite period of time and the investors consent in advance to share the profit (or loss) in an agreed proportion with the bank. Capital is not assured. (Ghafoor, 1995). Some IFIs (Islamic Financial Institutions) classify deposits in terms of wadiah or amanah. Current accounts of IFIs are regarded as qard hasan or qard (alternatively, as wadiah/amanah). (Farooq, 2008). Qard al-Hasana is defined as deposits whose full repayment on demand is guaranteed by bank. (Ahmad, 1994). The deposits in the current account are regarded as if they are loans from the customers to the bank and therefore, bear no yield to the account holders.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? (Al-Jarhi and Iqbal. 2001). Deposit accounts are neither a liability nor equity capital. They are a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“hybridà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? source of capital, and must be acknowledged as such. Depositors are partners with the bank, but enjoy no ownership rights. (Shubber and Alzafri,2008). Sudin Haron (1996) mentions that the law allows the banks to accept two types of deposits, i.e., qard al-hasanah deposits and term investment deposits. The qard al-hasanah deposits includes current as well as savings accounts which vary in their operational rules. (Ahmad, 1994). If it is allowed that the borrower can pay extra money voluntarily, then treating deposits as qard-hasan allows the banks as the borrowers to pay extra money to the depositors (lenders). Unlike savings account services at conventional banks, where depositors are automatically rewarded upon appointment of their funds, returns to savings account holders are reliant on the Shariah (Islamic laws) principles which are practiced by Islamic banks when offering this service. When wadiah (trusteeship) or qard hassan (benevolent loan) are used, the returns are entirely at the discretion of the banks. (Sudin Haron, 1996). Nienhaus, (2004) argues that if the customers of Islamic banks desire a return on their funds, they should pay into investment accounts (also called à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"participation accountsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ or à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"PLSà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, profit and loss sharing accounts). Whereas, credit balances on these accounts are not considered deposits in the conventional sense. The returns on Islamic banksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ investment accounts are not fixed in advance; the customers participate by a certain proportion in the financial outcome of the utilization of their investment funds by the bank. These results could also result in a loss. In case of loss, the clients will have to bear a portion of the loss which would reduce the nominal value of the credit balances of their respective investment accounts. In such a situation, the clients cannot claim a full reimbursement of the money paid in. The full reimbursement, however, is constituent for a deposit in the strict sense. (Nienhau s, 2004). Rosly and Zaini, (2008) say that the public in general put their money in banks for either fulfilling transactional needs or for investment needs. To suffice the transactional objective, Islamic banks offer services such as wadiah yad dhamanah deposit, which facilitates safekeeping of their deposit money with guarantee services. In this product, depositors no longer deposit funds to receive a fixed income. Instead, they place their deposits for protection.`Wadiah yad dhamanahà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ means safekeeping with guarantee. Wadiah yad dhamanah depositors permit the Islamic bank to invest their money in return for deposit safety that they got for free. Since the caretaker service is given without a fee, the Islamic bank holds no legal compulsion to pay depositors a predetermined return and may do so only on voluntary basis. In this way, the bank holds choice on profit distribution policy in the form of gift (hibah). The same is not correct for Islamic fixed deposits, frequently kno wn as mudarabah investment deposits. In this partnership composition, no guarantee is given to capital protection and fixed income, as it runs under equity principle. It is a precarious product as the underlying contract is based on profità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"loss sharing system. Profits are shared only in case of performing investments, while capital may depreciate or even shrink if the investment ends in losses. (Rosly and Zaini, 2008). Haron and Azmi, (2004) discuss that similar to conventional banks, Islamic banks also rely on depositorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ money as a key source of fund. Bank Muamalat Malaysia Berhad for example, had total deposits amounting to 94 percent of total liabilities and shareholdersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ equity at the end of December 2003. While in the case of Jordan Islamic Bank, Islamic Bank of Bangladesh, Bank Muamalat of Indonesia, and Bank Shariah Mandiri of Indonesia, the corresponding amounts were 94%, 86%, 76%, and 79%, respectively. These figures reveal the vast high total of the depositorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ money as a supply of finance for Islamic banks. Hence, it becomes indispensable for the management of Islamic banks to identify the factors that are most likely to convince customersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ decision making in depositing their capital with Islamic banks. (Haron and Azmi, 2004). With the exception of a study done by Metawa and Almossawi (1998) where religion was seen as a reason influencing customersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ choice to support Islamic banks in Bahrain, other studies have proven counter wise. The evidence from studies done in Sudan and Turkey, for example, revealed that religion was not the main motive for customers choosing Islamic banks (Erol and El-Bdour, 1989). Likewise, studies conducted in Malaysia and Singapore revealed both religion and profit as the explanation for people maintaining their association with Islamic banks (Haron et al., 1994; Gerrad and Cunningham, 1997). Since depositors are attracted by profits, it is vital for Islamic banks management to be aware of the fact that return rates on deposits persuade their customersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ decision to deposit. (Haron and Azmi, 2004). Relating to commercial banksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ deposit composition, Hester and Zoellner (1966) and Heggested (1977) found that time and savings deposits had a significant inverse correlation with profitability. Smirlockà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (1985) findings demonstrated a significant positive relationship amid demand deposits and profits. In contrast, Fraser and Rose (1971) found that loan rate; time deposit rate and loan-to-deposit ratio had no outcome on profitability. Haron (1996a) found evidence to suggest that current, savings and investment accounts of Islamic banks are positively related to profitability. Fraser et al (1974) considered operating costs, deposit and loan structures as factors within the control of management and found that the factor which had the biggest control on bank performance was bank cost followed by bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s deposit and loan composition. Heggested (1977) proved that banks heavily devoted to time and savings deposits earned considerably lower returns than banks which have higher reliance on demand deposits. Smirlock (1985) confirmed that demand deposits were a cheaper source of funds and had a positive impact on bank profits. In the literature, the majority of studies found that savings and time deposits have a negative relationship with profitability, while a positive relationship has been found for current account deposits. Haron (2004) found that nearly all deposit structure variables had no significant relationship with the profitability ratios. Deposits in current account, was the only variable which had a significant relationship with Bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s portion of income as a percentage of total assets and Net profit before tax as a percentage of total assets. Each 1% increase in the current account holdings increased the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s income by 0.034% and profit before tax by 0.036%. This end result was in line with the findings reported by Smirlock (1985). Since a current account service is considered a cost-free facility, it is anticipated that the more funds deposited into this account, the more Islamic banks would stand to profit. Interestingly, no significant relationship was fo und between current account deposits and Total income as a percentage of total assets, which implied that an increase in current accounts does not generate more proceeds to the bank as a whole but only functions as a cost saving measure. That is, no returns are paid to these depositors. In the case of savings and investment accounts, even though their relationships with all profitability ratios were at an insignificant level, the signs of their regression coefficients warranted further clarification. No contradiction with the findings of conventional banking literature with regard to savings accounts was apparent. A negative relationship was found between Savings account deposits and the profitability measures. This result suggests that any increase in savings accounts will reduce profits and it corresponds to the findings in the current banking literature (see for example Hester and Zoellner, 1966; and Heggested, 1977). The results on Investment account deposits in Haronà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (2004) study are not similar to those findings reported in earlier researches. Hester and Zoellner (1966) and Heggested (1977), for example, found that fixed deposit facilities had an inverse relationship with profitability. Since some of the characteristics of investment deposits at Islamic banks are similar to the fixed deposit facilities of conventional banks, it is expected that more funds deposited into these accounts would result in less profit to the bank. In contrast, Smirlock (1985) believed that an increasing amount in fixed deposits would have a positive relationship with a bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s profitability. Haronà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s (2004) study found that Investment account deposits had a positive relationship with all profitability measures and thus, confirmed Smirlockà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s hypothesis. Haron and Azmi (2004) attempted to investigate the strength of influence between both internal and external variables and profitability of Islamic banks in selected countries using timeseries techniques of cointegration and error-correction mechanism. They found a significant long-run relationship between profitability measures of Islamic banks and determining variables such as liquidity, deposit items, assets structure, inflation and money supply. They also found that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Investment account depositsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ was the only variable which had a significant relationship with all three profitability ratios. For Current account deposits, a positive relationship was found with à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s portion of income as a percentage of total assetsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The result indicated that a 1% increase in current account holdings increased the bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s portion of income by 0.064%. Given that current account facility is a cost-free serv ice, the more funds deposited into this account, the higher profits will be made available to Islamic banks. Interestingly, current account deposits had no significant relationship with à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Total income as a percentage of total assetsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ implying that an increase in current accounts does not generate more income to the bank, but only functions as a cost saving measure. On other words, Islamic banks do not pay any rewards to their depositors. These results were in line with the findings of Haron (1996a, 2004). Savings deposits variable was found to have a significant positive relationship with à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Total income as a percentage of total assetsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. For every 1% rise in savings account, total income increased by 0.26%. This was in line with normal banking practices whereby Islamic bank could use the funds deposited in this account for productive purposes and thus, generating additional revenue for the bank. Increases in deposits size has a positive impact on Earnings per share (EPS), as a portion of depositorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ profits is minused as a fee for the benefit of the bank and its shareholders. (Shubber and Alzafri, 2008). Returns on Islamic deposits are though flexible in nature since returns are based on performance rather than contracted upfront as evident in all interest bearing deposits. Although the mudarabah rates (investment deposit rates) are quoted using the rates given in the previous months, they are not fixed beforehand and serve as an indicative rate of return on Mudarabah deposits (ROMD). The Mudarabah (investment deposits) contract works along profità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"loss sharing principles while fixed deposits of conventional banks are based on the contract of debt. As an equity product, a Mudarabah deposit offers no principal protection and legal claims against any form of returns. To make up for the risk exposure of the product, Mudarabah depositors are expe cted to be given higher returns relative to that of commercial banksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ fixed depositors who avoided risk. (Rosly and Zaini, 2008). Haron and Shanmugam (1995) in their study try to link the profit rates to Islamic bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s deposits. Using Pearsonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s Correlation and First Order Autoregressive model, they found strong negative relationship between the two variables. Likewise, their finding showed a positive linear relationship between conventional and Islamic bank deposits. Haron and Ahmed (2000) argue that people who placed their deposits at saving and investment account facilities were guided by the profit motive. The utility maximization theory amongst the Muslim customers was further confirmed by the negative relationship between the rate of interest in conventional banks and the sum deposited in interest-free deposit facilities. Muslims should be guided by Islamic doctrines when making their economic decisions. Therefore, role of educating people regarding Islamic banking system should be played globally. It is indeed a challenging task. (Haron and Ahmed, 2000). Shubber and Alzafri, (2008) say that EPS (Earnings per share) improves as the level of deposits increases, as depositors were viewed as sharers in the profit and loss, rather than being entitled to a fixed interest rate. This supports that increasing deposits have a positive impact on EPS (Earnings per share). Increasing deposits, therefore, do not direct any increment in the cost of equity. In fact, equity holders benefited from larger deposits, as owners of the latter pay out management fees, which is deducted from the depositorsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ share of the profits. Also, the market value of Islamic banks is independent of WACC. (Shubber and Alzafri,2008). Haron and Azmi (2004a) demonstrated that with the exception of fixed and investment deposits, any increase in rates of interest, deposits at conventional system will increase and deposits at Islamic system will decrease, and vice-versa. As for the fixed and investment deposits, ambiguous results were found. One possible explanation for this is that rates of profit for deposits at Islamic system are known at the end of the deposit period and not at the beginning as opposed to the conventional system. Any upward changes in interest rate of conventional system will have an adverse impact to the deposit levels in the Islamic system. Therefore, rates of profit of Islamic system must at any time be similar to those of the conventional system. Finally, religious dimension can be considered as an important element to attract more people to deposit their funds in the Islamic system. This could also be the reason why more and more conventional banks are starting to offer Islamic banking facili ties to their customers not only in Malaysia but also to other parts of the world. (Haron and Azmi, 2004a). Hasan and Bashir (2003) argue that the rising contest and continuous innovation to provide financial services, all contribute to a increasing interest in a detailed evaluation of Islamic banks. Depositors are interested in evaluating the performance of their banks since they are not given fixed returns and the nominal values of their deposits are not assured. In trying to make best use of the value of shareholders investment, Islamic banks are exposed to risks. Hence, analyzing the Islamic banksà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ performance is important from economic and public policy perspectives. (Hasan and Bashir, 2003). Methodology This study uses univariate regression analysis to examine the relationship between deposits and profitability of Islamic banking industry in Pakistan. Univariate regression is a method of regression analysis that uses one explanatory variable to predict values of a single dependent variable. SPSS software is applied to obtain the univariate regression. In this study, three independent variables titled Fixed deposits, Savings Deposits and Current account deposits have been used. The dependent variable of profitability is measured by ROE which is the ratio of a bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s net after-tax income divided by its total equity capital. The return on equity (ROE) is considered to be one of the profitability performance ratios (Tarawneh, 2006). It indicates how effectively the management of the bank is able to turn shareholdersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ funds (i.e. equity) into net profit. ROE (Return on Equity) has been tested separately for the three independent deposit variables to avoi d the issue of multicollinearity since all the deposit variables are highly correlated to each other. This paper attempts to test three hypotheses. According to Becker (1995), hypothesis testing is the process of judging which of two contradictory statements is correct. Hypothesis 1: Investment Deposits increase the profitability of Islamic banks. Hypothesis 2: Saving Deposits increase the profitability of Islamic banks. Hypothesis 3: Current Account Deposits increase the profitability of Islamic banks. The data for this study is time series data taken from the quarterly editions of the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Islamic banking bulletinà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? published by the State Bank of Pakistan. These bulletins publish the consolidated financial statement variables representing the entire Islamic banking industry of Pakistan including all the full fledge Islamic banks (Al Baraka Islamic bank, Bank Islami Pakistan limited, Dawood Islamic bank Limited, Dubai Islamic bank limited, Emirates Global Islamic bank Ltd and Meezan Bank Ltd.) as well as the Islamic branches of conventional banks (Askari Bank Limited, Bank Al Falah Ltd., Bank Al Habib, Faysal Bank, Habib Metropolitan bank, MCB Bank Ltd, National bank of Pakistan, Soneri Bank Ltd, Standard Chartered Bank, The Bank of Khyber, Royal bank of Scotland, United Bank Ltd). The sample period for this study is limited from 2007 to 2009 as most of the Islamic banks started operations from 2007 in Pakistan. Hence, the consolidated data of the eleven consec utive quarters has been used in this study. The general equations of the three models are: Profitability = b0 + b1(ID)(1) Profitability = b0 + b1(SD)(2) Profitability = b0 + b1(CD)(3) Where, b0 = intercept (constant) Dependent variable: Profitability = ROE (Return on Equity) Independent variables: ID = Investment Deposits SD = Savings Deposits CD = Current Account Deposits Results The results of the regression analysis for model.1, 2 and 3 are shown in Tables 1, 2 and 3 respectively. All the three models were significant at the 5% level of significance. The value of the adjusted coefficient of determination (adjusted R2) for ROE in model.1 is 0.4 which demonstrates that 40% of the variability in total is explained by its linear association with Fixed deposits variable. As for model 2 and 3, the corresponding values of adjusted R2 are 0.399 and 0.377 respectively. A relatively small value of adjusted R2 does not necessarily mean that the model is in appropriate to measure the relationship between independent and dependent variables. (Haron, 2004). The value of adjusted R2 is usually influenced by a number of predictive variables relative to the sample size and it becomes smaller as we have fewer observations per predictor variable (Hair et al., 1995). To provide a rationale for the variance in R2 and adjusted R2 values, the Dublin-Walter test was conducted. The Dublin-Walter statistics values for all the three values were less than two which proves that the variance was due to negative autocorrelation in the sample observations. Also, the adequacy of a model for predicting is validated by the F-test. (Haron, 2004). As presented in Table 1, 2 and 3, all F-ratio values are statistically significant at 5% significance level for all profitability models. Hence, these results confirmed that the models applied were useful for measuring the relationship between deposits variable items and the profitability variable. Discussion The results supported all the three hypotheses that Investment, Savings and Current account deposits increase the profitability of Islamic banks. This result is in line with Haron (1996a, 2004) who founded evidence to suggest that all three sources of funds (current, savings and investment accounts) for Islamic banks are positively related to profitability. Hypothesis 1 of this study suggested that investment deposits increase the profitability of Islamic banks. The results show that the value of the adjusted coefficient of determination (adjusted R2) for ROE in model.1 is 0.4 which demonstrates that 40% of the variability in total is explained by its linear association with investment deposits variable. Hence, results support Hypothesis 1. Similarly, hypothesis 2 stated that savings deposits increase the profitability of Islamic banks. The results show that the value of the adjusted R2 for ROE in model.2 is 0.399 at 5% significance which shows that 39.9% of the variability in total is explained by its linear association with savings deposit variable. Hence, results also support Hypothesis 2. Finally, hypothesis 3 proposed that savings deposits increase the profitability of Islamic banks. The results show that the value of the adjusted R2 for ROE in model.3 is 0.377 which shows that 37.7% of the variability in total is explained by its linear association with savings deposit variable at 5% level of significance. Hence, results support Hypothesis 3 also. All these results were significant at a 5% level of significance. Referring to previous literature, the results are mixed. In the literature, most studies found that savings and investment deposits have an inverse relationship with profitability, while a positive relationship has been found for current account deposits. In this study, the current account deposit variable had significant positive relationship with profitability. This result is in line with the findings reported by Smirlock (1985), Haron (1996a, 2004) and Haron Azmi (2004). Since a current account service is considered a cost-free facility, it is expected that the more funds deposited into this account (current), the more Islamic banks will stand to profit. In the case of savings deposits, a positive relationship was found between these deposits and profitability. This result suggests that any increase in savings accounts will increase profits and this is in line with Haron (1996a) and Haron Azmi (2004) as Islamic banks can use these savings funds deposited in this account for productive purposes and therefore, generating additional revenue for the Islamic banks. The results on investment deposits in this study are not similar to most of the findings reported in commercial banking literature. For example, Hester and Zoellner (1966) and Heggested (1977) found that fixed deposit facilities had an inverse relationship with profitability. In contrast, Smirlock (1985), Haron (1996a, 2004), Haron and Azmi (2004) believed that an increasing amount in fixed deposits would have a positive relationship with a bankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s profitability. This study found that investment deposits had a positive relationship with all profitability measures and thus, confirmed Smirlockà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s, Haronà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s and Azmià ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s hypothesis. In light of the above findings, Islamic banking provides a better and ethical alternative that is not only Riba-free according to the rules of Shariah but also profitable to depositors and investors since all the deposit accounts are positively correlated to profitability. Since, Islamic banking provides three different interest-free deposit facilities to its depositors and investors to facilitate them according to their financial needs, people should invest in these deposit accounts in order to patronize the Islamic banking industry and to receive good returns in the form of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"hibaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ from these Islamic banks. In addition, Ghazali (2008) suggests that Islamic banking is indeed relevant to the current economic crisis. The global financial meltdown stemming from the US actually poses an opportunity for the Islamic banking system to demonstrate its distinctiveness. The financial meltdown revealed the desperate need for a system like Islamic finance, based on the principle of profit-sharing where both parties are subjected to probable losses and returns. It is a fair and just system. This is contrasting to the conventional system, where Islamic banks do not acquire or trade debt; rather they manage substantial assets which are tied to real economic activities.. This is really an opportunity for the Islamic financial community to reveal to the global market that the Islamic financial system is actually a robust and feasible alternative to the conventional interest-based system. Hence, people should support the Islamic banking industry worldwide since deposits are positively related to the profitability of Islamic banks. Hence, increased deposits would result in higher profitability of Islamic banks which in return would provide higher returns to its depositors. This would finally lead to implement a justified and ethical economic system which encourages a fair distribution of wealth and resources throughout the society. This study can be extended to include more time series and cross-sectional data of Islamic banks of other countries. The study may also be extended to cover other determinants of Islamic banking profitability.

The Impact Of Internet On Information Privacy - 1607 Words

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What Does Aristotle Identify as the Ultimate Human Good...

In the quest to find out what is the ultimate human good, Aristotle dedicated Book 1 of the Nicomachean Ethics to provide an account of what is the ultimate human good, and what it consists of. This essay will examine why Aristotle thinks that eudaimonia (happiness), is the ultimate human good. Through this discussion, we will see Aristotle suggest four central views which are critical to eudaimonia being the ultimate human good. Firstly, one has to live a life according to one’s function. Secondly, natural, virtuous activity is required in order to live a life of happiness. Thirdly, one requires possessing external goods such as wealth, power and friends in order to be happy. Last but not least, in order to live a life of happiness, one†¦show more content†¦7). Once you have happiness, no other good is necessary; this makes happiness the final and greatest good. In order to come up with a distinct definition of happiness, Aristotle states that one has to determine what the function of a human being is (Ross, Book 1, chap 7). The function of a human being must have something to do with being human; and what sets humanity apart from other species (Ross, Book 1, chap 7). Living is a characteristic that is shared with plants, so that cannot be the function of humans (Ross, Book 1, chap 7). Life perception is shared with animals and cannot be the function of humans either. (Ross, Book 1, chap 7). Giving us the potential to live a better life is the ability to reason. Therefore, if we use reason well, we live well as human beings (Ross, Book 1, chap 7). With the ability to use reason well over the course of a full life is what happiness consists in (Ross, Book 1, chap 7). Doing anything well requires virtue or excellence, and therefore living well consists in activities caused by the rational soul in accordance with virtue or excellence (Ross, Book 1, chap 7). Aristotle stresses the importance of identifying the function of humans and employing it appropriately according to its proper purpose (Ross, Book 1, chap 7). For example, a baker who decides to become a blacksmith because heShow MoreRelatedWhy Cheating Is Unethical Essay1843 Words   |  8 Pagescommonly concentrated on is the act of cheating in education. Louise asked: What I regard as cheating is considered OK by many American university students — one survey revealed that as many as 75% of the interviewed students had purchased essays, term papers or even their masters theses from other writers, usually through online paper mills, instead of doing their own work. One student responded to the question Why do you cheat? by saying If youre not cheating, youre not trying. 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Fast Advancement in the Technological Field-Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: How to the Fast Advancement in the Technological Field? Answer: Introducation: With the advancement in the technological field, terms and conditions of a contract are not actually read by the people who get affected due to it (QC, 2015). Contracts are signed and receipts are accepted or a tick-box on web portal is checked without considering the agreement requirements. In the article published in the Guardian in 2011, it was reported that terms and conditions are read only by 7 percent of the British people when they sign up for any products or services online(Smithers, 2011). It may be due to a general misconception among people that all consumer contracts have same terms and conditions (TC) and there is no impact of these TCs on the individuals. The reason behind this was found to be the boring and long terms conditions of the contract. Furthermore, the contracts that are generally signed without understanding the terms and conditions are most likely to occur between the outsized companies and specific consumers (Menon, 2016). It might also be debated to be r eflected through check boxes on the websites from where the products have been purchased that terms are non transferable and firm because dealings had not been performed with a person in real. The law actually understands this situation of the consumers in common law as well as in act (Woan, et al., 2015). As per the general law, the signing of the contract specifies that the parties are agreed to the terms and conditions which are included in the contract (Consult Australia, 2017; Wiley, 2017; Australian Contract Law, 2016). After the development and progress in the field of technology, local as well as international commercialization experienced huge expansion and with multiple commercial transactions, the requirement for legal certainty increased particularly for the transactions across the country. For the purpose of enabling the online formation of contracts, a comprehensive law might be required which could confirm the formation of the contract through electronic means. However, e-commerce law does not require regulations and codes and there is no specific regulator essential and available in most of the jurisdictions. All the parties to the contract are required to have the capacity and ability to enter into online contracts in accordance with the law and does not require any registration or to obtain particular accreditation. The general court system provides appropriate enforcement and suitable review of the formation of contracts online. However, the courts require certain changes to the rules a nd procedures regarding the admission of evidence admission and discovery procedures. Jurisdiction usually subjects to territorial limits and that is why; its application to the internet becomes questionable when there might not be any territorial borders and physical presence in the forum. Thus, the intervention of Parliament and court would be the most appropriate way to deal with the application of contract law to the online transactions. The question of jurisdiction still arises for online transactions which can be divided into two parts i.e. the applicable law under which online transaction related dispute are required to be decided and the location of the forum, in which, the court is required to consider the dispute. The occurrence of a dispute between those who are in favor of jurisdiction being in the region of the consumer and those who favor of being in the region where the business is situated has become an issue of conflict. Different countries support different tests i .e. some prefer business location while some prefer consumer residence. In matters of e-commerce jurisdiction, laws of the country do not play a significant role as such but public international law and international and regional agreements and other agreements regarding treaties on an international level play a significant role. For this purpose, regulations and codes are also not required. E-commerce or online transaction related legal activities do not require specific regulator and there is no availability of national or international regulator that could play a significant role in the aspects related to e-commerce law. There are certain international standards that have already been developed for the provision of jurisdiction in contracts that are being made online. One such standard is the International Chamber of Commerce that has publicized model clauses to be included in e-commercial contracts which prove to be beneficial in promoting the best practices and improving consistency in e-commerce transactions. The significant role of courts is in en forcing and for the purpose of review of the suitable jurisdiction in case of disputes regarding online transaction or e-commerce. In the absence of international and regional agreements and treaties, it becomes the responsibility of the court to decide the jurisdiction of e-commerce transactions. Furthermore, the legal infrastructure which is highly significant for international law requires effective performance of laws which are framed by the Parliament of the country itself. That is why; there is a requirement of effective legislation made by the Parliament and the courts to regulate that the laws be implemented by the nationals of the country. In case of e-commerce transactions, the parties to the contract never meet each other which create obvious trust issues between them and also make it difficult to ensure that the parties would act lawfully and the transaction would be considered as legal. In presence of unequal bargaining power between the parties to the contract, particular concern related to such disputes arises. Online contracts are essential because it plays a significant role in e-commerce by specifying the terms and conditions which govern the transactions. Thus, there is a requirement of a specific body of law in order to ensure certainty in e-commerce and online contracting process. For example in Australia, Electronic Transaction Act 1999 has established that electronic communication is permissible for the contract formation purpose in the absence of agreement (Galexia, 2017). In Canada also, in electronic transactions as the exchange of offer and acceptance by the parties cannot be determined, in such situations, the contract is said to have completed when confirmation of acceptance of the offer is communicated to the offertory. The implementation of the law of contract to the online transactions is reasonable taking into consideration this approach of the government of different states. The UCTA was also introduced by the Parliament in order to control the integration and rationality of the exclusion clauses in the contracts and its authorities allow courts to state certain exclusion clauses ineffectually (Erdle, 2001). Parliament has required strengthening the courts ability to redress practical unfairness chiefly consumer contracts (Queen Mary Law Journal, 2013). Therefore, it can be concluded that the action taken by the Parliament and courts of various nations in the process of implementation of contract law to the online transactions would be appropriate. Facts Clover has been stressed out due to her weight that is why her husband Darren gifted her a brand new Pro Row machine. Clover became so excited that she decided to immediately try her new rowing machine. She read the Instruction Manuel carefully and used the rowing machine as per the instruction. Although, because of some defect in the rower, the cable got broken down on the machine as a result of which Clover flight off the back of the rowing machine on the wall behind and fell severely on her back due to which she suffered broken tailbone and severe injuries on her lower back. Because of the injuries, Cloverslower back had to be operated.She was hospitalized for next few months. After the operation also, she will need a walking stick for rest of her life. In addition, she will not be able to lift or move without pain. Also because of this injury, she has would not be able to continue her job as a nurse. Days went by, due to reducing sales, ElecPar publicized in numerous local and re gional newspapers regarding the Pro Row for sale at a discount price. The company also publicized that it had limited stock of Rowers at its stores and would be unable to resource the equipment in any sort of reasonable quantity. Issues a) Will Clover be successful in a claim for reimbursement of cost incurred due to her injuries and if so from whom would she make the claim. b) Is there a possibility of any action that could be taken against ElecPar for the declarations which have been made regarding the uses and advantages of the Pro Row c) Is there a breach or flouting of the ACL for misleading claim made in advertisements that they have none or limited stock. Applicable laws Clover has entered into a contractual relationship with the Gym G retailer and manufacturer Elec Par Pty Ltd. As the company in Australia assembled the electronic rower under the brand name Pro Row with the parts imported from outside the country (AustLII, 2017). There are few essential requirements for a contract to be valid in Australia. There must be a concluded agreement between the parties which should involve the acceptance of an offer. The parties to the contract are required to have the intention to have the legally binding agreement. Section 3 of ACL considers customer as an individual who obtains goods or services for personal, local or domestic usage or for the purpose of consumption that is priced below or above $40,000. Thus, Clover will be considered as a consumer under the consumer law of Australia. ACL deals with the consumer protections which are applicable generally to create broad standards of conduct in trade or commerce. According to Section 55, goods are required to be rationally suitable for a determination that a consumer wants through expression or by implications to the dealer or the manufacturer. The goods supplied to the consumers are required to be guaranteed through express or manufacturers warranties. As per ACL regulations, a consumer is required to be provided with a notification that all the products are given with statutory assurances that cannot be omitted by the law (Australian Government, 2010). Thus, Clover must also be provided with a warranty card at the time of purchasing the rowing machine from Gym G. If the husband of Clover had fulfilled all the requirements for the guarantee to be honored, the process for him to claim and the contact specifics of the person who provides the guarantee must have been informed to him (AustlII, 2017). According to Section 138 of ACL, an action of liability can be brought against the manufacturer, if harm or damage has been agonized due to injuries sustained because of defective goods (Australian Competition and Consumer Commission , 2010). Clover was severely injured due to the rowing machine and thus, liability action can be taken against the manufacturer i.e. Elec Par company. In case, the manufacturers are unidentified, the suppliers are required to provide the information about the manufacturers to the consumers, if they fail, the suppliers are held responsible for providing recompense for the harm or damage to be grieved (Commonwealth of Australia , 2017). Section 274 states that consumers buy goods straight from the dealers and possess only unintended trades with the manufacturers. Therefore, the principal source of remedies under the legislative consumer assurances is suppliers. However, in this case, Clover got seriously injured and became physically impaired due to the accident. She can recover damages from the manufacturer as the reason of failure to conformto the assurancewhich is autonomous of the dealer. Therefore, Clover would be successful in claiming for compensation for the injuries and she should make a claim against the manufacturer. B) Elec Par Company advertised on radio and fitness magazines about Pro Row that the rowing machine is good for the health of men and women. The advertisement stated that Pro Row will reduce fat of the body, enhance muscle size by 30 percent, reduce 20 cms off hips and belly without dieting within a month and will display immediate consequences that last a lifespan. However, in reality, the product did not offer any of these benefits. In addition to that ElecPar Pty Ltd publicized that the Pro Row has been recognized by and has been accepted for practice not only by the NSW Appropriateness Values but also by awell-known fitness celebrity Mikki Brown. It was proved that the product was not accepted by any regulatory body and also it was not being recommended by Mikki Brown. According to Section 4 of ACL, misleading representations regarding future matters include performance or non-performance of any act and that too without any reasonable grounds. In this case, as Elec Par is considered as a manufacturer under Section 7 of ACL as the company assembled the rowing machine. All the information provided by the manufacturer in the advertisements was misleading and deceptive and ACL forbids misleading and deceptive behavior in trade or commerce under Section 18 of ACL. Remedies are required to be provided to the aggrieved consumers which include injunctions and damages under ACL (AustLII, 2017). Additionally, Section 29 of ACL forbids an individual from creating false or misleading representations related to the supply or the probability of supply of goods or services or in relation with the advancement in any way of the supply or utilization of the goods or services by the consumers. Under the category of false or misleading representations which are prohib ited by the ACL, includes the sponsorships, approval, characteristics of performance, its uses, and benefits. Thus, Elec Par has made a false representation of the goods provided by the company through advertisement and stated that the machine was permitted by the NSW Fitness Standards and by the principal fitness model Mikki Brown. Thus, the action can be taken against the ElecPar for the statements made by the company regarding the practices and benefits of the Pro Row (AustLII, 2017). c) The company has contravened the consumer law of Australia regarding the advertisements despite knowing the fact that they possess nothing or inadequate storage of the Pro Row. Because of lagging sales, Elec Par publicized in numerous indigenous and regional newspapers the Pro Row for deal at discount regardless of having nothing or inadequate numbers of Pro Row Rowers at its supplies and having the understanding that it would not be able to supply the apparatus in number of reasonable quantity to the consumers. The company has made false statements in relation to the availability of goods along with false offers of discount to the consumers, thus, it had contravened the regulations of ACL. The company must be required to fulfill the demands of the consumers and if fails, it will have to compensate to the consumers (AustLII, 2017). Conclusion Taking into consideration, all the facts and issues along with the relevant legislation, it can be concluded that the position of Clover is strong and legal action can be taken against the manufacturer for which the company will be held liable for suitable compensation to Clover. Additionally, due to the injuries, Clover got operated on her back and still required a walking stick for the purpose of walking. Furthermore, she has not been able to continue working as a nurse for the rest of her life because of her inability to lift or move without pain. Thus, appropriate compensation must be paid to her by the manufacturer with the action taken by the court regarding the case. On the legal action taken by the Clover against the manufacturer, the court will provide appropriate compensation order in favor of Clover and will take strict action against the company for contravening the ACL. References AustLII, 2017. Competition And Consumer Act 2010. [Online] Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/caca2010265/toc-sch2.html [Accessed 26 May 2017]. AustlII, 2017. Competition And Consumer Act 2010 - Schedule 2. [Online] Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/caca2010265/sch2.html#_Toc476304833 [Accessed 26 May 2017]. AustLII, 2017. Competition And Consumer Act 2010 - Schedule 2. [Online] Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/caca2010265/sch2.html#_Toc476304867 [Accessed 26 May 2017]. AustLII, 2017. Competition And Consumer Act 2010 - Schedule 2. [Online] Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/caca2010265/sch2.html#_Toc476304834 [Accessed 26 May 2017]. AustLII, 2017. Competition And Consumer Act 2010 - Schedule 2. [Online] Available at: https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/caca2010265/sch2.html [Accessed 26 May 2017]. Australian Competition and Consumer Commission , 2010. Legislation. [Online] Available at: https://www.accc.gov.au/about-us/australian-competition-consumer-commission/legislation [Accessed 26 May 2017]. Australian Contract Law, 2016. Australian Contract and Consumer Law. [Online] Available at: https://www.australiancontractlaw.com/ [Accessed 26 May 2017]. Australian Government, 2010. The Australian Consumer Law. [Online] Available at: https://publications.qld.gov.au/dataset/1b96f0f9-1d84-44b4-9448-7d871dbd3b9d/resource/a9a1cc75-3b45-44fb-a08d-33d1e6ac7c10/download/aclguidetoprovisions.pdf [Accessed 26 May 2017]. Christensen, S., 2001. Formation of Contracts by Email Is it Just the Same as the Post?. Queensland University of Technology Law Justice Journal , 1(1), pp. 22-38. Commonwealth of Australia , 2017. Australian Consumer Law. [Online] Available at: https://consumerlaw.gov.au/ [Accessed 26 May 2017]. Consult Australia, 2017. Australian Contract Law. [Online] Available at: https://www.consultaustralia.com.au/docs/default-source/contracts-liability/Consult_Australia_Response_to_AGD_Discussion_Paper_on_Contract_Law_-_July_2012.pdf?sfvrsn=0 [Accessed 26 May 2017]. Erdle, M., 2001. On-Line Contracts: Electronic Creation Of Effective Contracts. [Online] Available at: https://www.dww.com/articles/online-contracts-electronic-creation-of-effective-contracts [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Galexia Pty Ltd, 2017. What is E-Commerce Legal Infrastructure?. [Online] Available at: https://www.galexia.com/public/research/articles/research_articles-pa04.html [Accessed 26 May 2017]. Galexia, 2017. What is E-Commerce Legal Infrastructure. [Online] Available at: https://www.galexia.com/public/research/articles/research_articles-pa04.html [Accessed 29 May 2017]. Menon, S., 2016. The Interpretation of Documents: Saying what they Mean or Meaning what they Say. [Online] Available at: https://www.supremecourt.gov.sg/docs/default-source/default-document-library/sjc/the-interpretation-of-documents---saying-what-they-mean-or-meaning-what-they-say.pdf [Accessed 27 May 2017]. QC, H. B., 2015. Scope of application and general approach of the new rules for contracts in the digital environment, s.l.: European Union. Queen Mary Law Journal, 2013. Annual Essay Contest: First Year Contract Law , s.l.: Queen Mary Law Journal. Smithers, R., 2011. Terms and conditions: not reading the small print can mean big problems. [Online] Available at: https://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2011/may/11/terms-conditions-small-print-bigproblems [Accessed 26 May 2017]. Wiley, 2017. Legal requirements of small. [Online] Available at: https://www.wiley.com/legacy/Australia/PageProofs/BUS_MAN/1_2/KC_VCE_BusMgmnt_U12_3E_c08__WEB.pdf [Accessed 27 May 2017]. Woan, L. P., Koh, P. Ho, T. C., 2015. Ch.08 The Law of Contract. [Online] Available at: https://www.singaporelaw.sg/sglaw/laws-of-singapore/commercial-law/chapter-8 [Accessed 26 May 2017].

Neocolonialism and Global South

The term neocolonialism was coined by Kwame Nkrumah, a former President of Ghana to explain the political, social and economic control which can be propagated culturally, linguistically and economically.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Neocolonialism and Global South specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The overall objective of the control is to enhance and promote the culture of the neocolonialist state(s) among the citizens of the targeted countries so as to get access to markets, labor and raw materials for corporations based in the neocolonialist state(s). The key pillars of neocolonialism therefore include globalization, capitalism and imperialism. Neocolonialism is contrasted with colonialism, which implies direct military and political control of one state by another in a ruler-ruled relationship (Bauer and Holowinska 72). Neocolonialism goes hand in hand with the concept of global divide which divide s the world into global north and global south. The powerful nations popularly known as the first world make up the global north. Such countries include the United States (US) and its allies who control the United Nations (UN) and are also members of the G8. The global north accounts for a quarter of world’s population but controls three quarters of world’s income. The citizens of such countries have access to education, health and shelter (Sartre 18). The global south on the other hand comprises the developing or undeveloped countries majorly in Africa, Asia and Latin America. These countries account for three quarters of world’s population but they only control a quarter of the world’s income. In the global south, the access to health, education and shelter is usually a privilege of the few. However, the global divide is not mainly influenced by geographical location of a country. If a country in Africa is able to compete economically with other western powers, it is put under the category of global north. Similarly, if a country in Europe is poor, it is put under the category of global south. In other words, the defining criteria is the economic stability of a country, not its geographical location.Advertising Looking for research paper on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Theoretical models for explaining neocolonialism Idealism theory In international relations and foreign policy, idealism is a political philosophy which entails the advancement of a particular ideology (political, social or economic) both at home and abroad, with the aim of promoting and safeguarding the interests of citizens of a country and those of citizens in other countries. Examples include the fight against poverty, HIV/AIDS and advocacy for democracy instead of dictatorship or authoritarianism as well as safeguarding of human rights. Realism theory This is a state centered i nternational relations theory which looks at states as the key actors in international politics. The theory is based on the works of historical writers such as Rousseau, Machiavelli and Thucydides (Edkins and Vaughan-Williams 43). The main argument of realism is that international relations are characterized by anarchy, in which nations interact for their selfish interests. Realism therefore negates the mutual understanding of nations in their relations and puts more emphasis on the struggle of nations to amass as much resources as possible in order to advance their own interests. With realism, economic success is the leading interest in international relations. The US and its allies are known to promote democracy in many parts of Africa. However, a critical look at the issue shows that in most cases, the US is only interested in having democratic leaders who can help it gain access to markets and raw materials. Leaders who are not ready to cooperate are labeled as criminals, terror ists and unfit to hold office. Such leaders and their countries are eventually slapped with economic sanctions and are also isolated by the international community. A good example is Robert Mugabe of Zimbabwe whose country has been isolated by the international community. Globalization and neocolonialism Globalization can be defined as the minimization of the differences between people of the world and the maximization of their similarities through interactions, cooperation and communication.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Neocolonialism and Global South specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Before the world wars, the world was characterized by minimal interaction, communication, cross-border movements and language homogeneity. However, after the world wars, this situation changed. The changes were mainly triggered by the desire of nations of the world to unite in various spheres of development, mainly the economy, education, employment, environment and governance. The main driving forces of globalization were however the advancement in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), improved transport systems, liberalized trade as well as liberalized immigration policies. Globalization has made it possible for any person to work, study, marry and stay in any part of the world irrespective of his or her culture. After the world wars, a new form of globalization emerged. This was triggered by the new desire to unite the world through the three main development pillars, namely social, political and economic pillars. Many states thought that the world wars were mainly caused by poor interaction between the nations, arguing that many countries did not care harming others as a result of the old economic philosophy which pegged development on elimination of rivals rather than the cooperation between stakeholders. The contemporary form of globalization is characterized by the liberalization of trade, the emergence of multinational corporations as well as emergence of global institutions like the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other UN affiliated institutions. The advancement in ICT has transformed the world into a global village. Through ICT and improved means of transport, people are more than ever able to do business with each other without any form of barriers. The developed countries have been in the forefront in propagating the idea of globalization. These countries led by the US usually view the developing countries as their imperial territories. They always ensure that there are in place rules and regulations governing the economic, social and political endeavors of the developing countries (Gills and Thompson 175).Advertising Looking for research paper on international relations? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They know that with a global culture in place, they are able to remain ahead by using resources from the developing and the undeveloped countries for their economic, social and political progress (Baylis, Smith and Owens 90). The developing countries are known as the markets of the western culture. Culture in this context is taken to mean business, educational, political and governance ideas. Many developing countries in Africa are known to have embraced what is referred to as export based agriculture at the expense of subsistence agriculture. This has led to recurrent food shortages in many developing countries (Buckman 42). The trend began in early 1980s through what were referred to as Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPS), which required countries in Africa and Asia to embrace economic development at the expense of social and political development (Kelsey 95). This led to the ever rising levels of poverty and population growth rates in the developing world, forcing them to compl y with the policies of the new world order for the fear of economic and political sanctions from the developed countries (Konadu-Agyemang 219). The undeveloped countries are those which have high poverty levels and illiteracy. Most of these countries are found in Africa and are described as living in the wrong civilization or being uncivilized. These countries are the best dumping sites for western culture. Most of the undeveloped countries are characterized by poor governance, ethnic strife and lack of basic social amenities. Many analysts have however argued that the poverty and lack of infrastructure in the undeveloped countries can be attributed to the imperial nature of their relationships with their developed counterparts. Forms of Neocolonialism Colonialism was very popular during the 19th century when the British, the US and other western powers scrambled for resources for their industries in the developing and undeveloped countries. They used the ideas of religion and educa tion to penetrate and gain control over the countries especially in Africa where there were no formal governments and institutions. Some western powers even went ahead to use the Africans as slaves due to ignorance of the African people. With time, colonization was slowly brought to an end following the end of world wars. However, what the Africans and the developing countries did not know was that only flags of their countries changed. Some political analysts have described the independence of many African and Asian countries as â€Å"independence of the flag†, meaning that even though the countries are independent, they can only exercise that independence to the extent of self governance alone. What this means is that the countries are literally colonized but through ideas. It can therefore be argued that even though many developing countries were granted permission to govern themselves, their former colonies still maintained high economic, social and political dominance in their former colonies. One of the ways in which neocolonialism has been propagated is through what is referred to as the odious debt. This is a debt which is incurred when a loan is given to a poor country but fails to benefit the citizens due to corruption by the leaders. Such countries also lack a clear economic policy to regulate investment, taxation and foreign debt. The developed countries benefit from the debts because they charge high interest rates on the loans, which are not used for the economic progress of the poor countries but are misappropriated by the corrupt leaders. These dictators in return become loyal to the countries which give them the loans and thus the developed countries get an opportunity to exploit the markets, labor and raw materials of the developing countries. There are also double standards even on genuine loans when it comes to repayment. When a country like the US gives a loan to another country like Germany or France, the loan is repaid with very l ittle interest or even interest free. However, when the same loan is given to a developing country, it is repaid with interest which is three to five times higher than what France or Germany would pay. The aim is to ensure that the developing countries do not become economically independent. Neocolonialism is also propagated using international institutions like the IMF. This institution was formed with an aim of liberalizing the world’s economy to enable the developing countries get loans for their development (Kegley 46). However, the problem with the IMF is that it gives loans to the developing countries with strings attached. One example to illustrate this is Jamaica, which was given a loan by IMF in 1977 to reconstruct the economy which had disintegrated in 1970. However, the condition of the loan was that Jamaica was supposed to eliminate all labor laws and especially the law on minimum wage. This paved way for exploitation of the citizens by multinational corporations which underpaid the citizens of Jamaica. The idea of International Law and neocolonialism International law refers to the set of laws or principles which govern the relationships between sovereign states (Fichtelberg 76). It was initially formed to govern the manner in which nations related to each other with a view of improving their relationships in regard to specific issues. International law initially took the form of treaties and agreements between states, which were either bilateral or multilateral. The protection of human rights moved the international law to create the international criminal court to try the perpetrators of crimes against humanity. Since its formation, the court has investigated several perpetrators of crimes against humanity like Charles Taylor of Liberia, Slobodan Milosevic of Yugoslavia and has issued a warrant of arrest against Sudanese president Omar Al Bashir for the chaos and atrocities in the Darfur region of the Sudan. However, the court has attract ed criticism from political analysts who have accused it of double standards in that it only targets the developing countries. The super powers of the world like the US, which refused to be a signatory to the Rome statute which formed the court, have never been subjected to the court’s jurisdictions despite the fact that they have committed crimes of aggression against other states like the Iraq invasion in 2003. My prescription on how the international community should deal with the issue of neocolonialism is for international institutions such as the UN and its affiliated institutions to ensure that the international law is followed to the letter. The UN in particular should seek to empower the developing and undeveloped countries with social, political and economic resources for them to resist any attempts of neocolonialism by the US and its allies. Works Cited Bauer, Franziska, and Magdalena Holowinska. Colonialism and Neo-Colonialism. München GRIN: Verlag GmbH, 2009. Print. Baylis, John, Steve Smith, ‎ and Patricia Owens‎. The Globalization of World Politics: An Introduction to International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Print. Buckman, Greg. Globalization: Tame it or Scrap it? : Mapping the Alternatives of the Anti-Globalization Movement. London: Zed Books, 2004. Print. Edkins, Jenny, and Nick Vaughan-Williams. Critical Theorists in International Relations. London: Routledge, 2009. Print. Fichtelberg, Aaron. Law at the Vanishing Point: A Philosophical Analysis of International Law. Farnham GU9 7PT: Ashgate Publishing, 2005. Print. Gills, Barry, and William Thompson ‎. Globalization and Global History; Rethinking Globalizations. London: Routledge, 2006. Print. Kegley, Charles. World Politics: Trend and Transformation. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print. Kelsey, Jane. International economic regulation. Sheffield: Ashgate Publishers, 2002. Print. Konadu-Agyemang, Kwado. IMF and World Bank Sponsored Str uctural Adjustment Programs in Africa: Ghana’s Experience, 1983-1999.Voices in Development Management. Sheffield: Ashgate Publishers, 2001. Print. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Colonialism and Neocolonialism. New York: Routledge, 2001. Print. This research paper on Neocolonialism and Global South was written and submitted by user Julissa C. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Computer Crime Essays - Hacker, Phreaking, Hacking, Cybercrime

Computer Crime Essays - Hacker, Phreaking, Hacking, Cybercrime Computer Crime It's the weekend, you have nothing to do so you decide to play around on your computer. You turn it on and then start up, you start calling people with your modem, connecting to another world, with people just like you at a button press away. This is all fine but what happens when you start getting into other peoples computer files. Then it becomes a crime, but what is a computer crime really, obviously it involves the use of a computer but what are these crimes. Well they are: Hacking, Phreaking, & Software Piracy. To begin I will start with Hacking, what is hacking. Hacking is basically using your computer to "Hack" your way into another. They use programs called scanners which randomly dials numbers any generating tones or carriers are recorded. These numbers are looked at by hackers and then used again, when the hacker calls up the number and gets on he's presented with a logon prompt, this is where the hacking really begins, the hacker tries to bypass this anyway he knows how to and tries to gain access to the system. Why do they do it, well lets go to a book and see "Avid young computer hackers in their preteens and teens are frequently involved in computer crimes that take the form of trespassing, invasion of privacy, or vandalism. Quite often they are mearly out for a fun and games evening, and they get entangled in the illegal use of their machines without realizing the full import of what they are doing" , I have a hard time believing that so lets see what a "hacker" has to say about what he does "Just as they were enthraled with their pursuit of information, so are we. The thrill of the hack is not in breaking the law, it's in the pursuit and capture of knowledge." , as you can see the "hacker" doesn't go out to do destroy things although some do. It's in the pursuit of knowledge. Of course this is still against the law. But where did all of this start, MIT is where hacking started the people there would learn and explore computer systems all around the world. In the views of professional hacking is like drugs or any other addictive subezce, it's an addiction for the mind and once started it's difficult to stop. This could be true, as hackers know what they are doing is wrong and they know odds are they will be caught. But as I mentioned some hackers are just above average criminals, using there skills to break in banks and other places where they can get money, or where they can destroy information. What a hacker does at a bank is take a few cents or even a few fractions of a cents from many different accounts this may seem like nothing but when all compiled can be alot. A stick up robber averages about $8,000 each "job", and he has to put his life and personal freedom on the line to do it while the computer hacker in the comfort of his own living room averages $500,000 a "job". As for people destroying information, this is for taking some one down, destruction of data could end a business which for some is very attractive. It can cost a company thousands of dollars to restore the damage done. Now that you have an underezding of what a "hacker" is, it time to move on to someone closely associates with a hacker. This is a Phreak, but what is that. For the answer we turn to the what is known as the "Official" Phreakers Manual "Phreak [fr'eek] 1. The action of using mischievous and mostly illegal ways in order to not pay for some sort of telecommunications bill, order, transfer, or other service. It often involves usage of highly illegal boxes and machines in order to defeat the security that is set up to avoid this sort of happening. [fr'eaking] v. 2. A person who uses the above methods of destruction and chaos in order to make a better life for all. A true phreaker will not go against his fellows or narc on people who have ragged on him or do anything termed to be

Immanuel Kant Ethical Theory Part A

Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory. According to Bentham, the utilitarian principle discloses that the action of morally right when it promotes the maximum happiness for a majority of the citizens (Dion, 2012, p. 10). Therefore, utilitarianism can be expressed by, the greatest good for the highest number. In Ted 's situation, utilitarianism theory explains option in paying the inspector $500.00 would be most preferable as it will maximise happiness for Ted, his employees and the inspector. Kantian Ethics Kant 's ethical theory is deontological theory. In deontological theories actions are evaluated as ethical or unethical based on one duty. Kantian ethics theory includes duty for the sake of duty regardless to human happiness, unlike utilitarianism. Immanuel Kant defined duty as â€Å"the action which is objectively practical according to this law and excludes inclination from its determining grounds is called duty† (Kant, 1956, p. 83). According to Kant, all acts have a maxim. Maxim is a rule or principle. He mentions, â€Å"So act that the maxim of your will could always hold at the same time as principle establishing universal law† (Kant, 1956, p. 30). He makes an effort to provide a universal law which is correct under any conditions for everybody. Therefore, it can be concluded that Kantian ethics emphasises a universal morality. According to Kantian ethics, action is ethical if it 's satisfied the categorical imperative test (Strategies,The easy accessibility of pornography and long term exposure to it from an early age can lead to damaging views about women or even correlate with violence and sex crimes. Young males especially are targeted and pressured by peers and society to consume porn and throughout time, may become desensitized to the brutality, violence and degradation depicted in it. Now that does not necessarily mean every male will go out and commit a sex crime, but it has been studied that males who view porn frequently have less empathy for rape victims and may exhibit aggressive behavior and or hold negative opinions about women. In order for these increasingly negative attitudes towards women, the policies and regulations surrounding how easy it is to find porn, very much need to be altered. Pornography can play a major role in affecting the brains of young males who watch it, and by result can influence them to be violent towards women. As technology has progressed and with the internet flourishing over the past 20 years, in comes the inevitable chance of finding porn. A computer with internet access can typically be found in almost every household in the country, and thus –the increase of porn exposure. For males in particular who are more likely to search for it, pornography becomes available at every corner of the web by a simple Google search to a free porn site, or even in advertisements. The porn exposure typically begins at an early age, â€Å"9 out of 10 boys are exposed to pornographyWilliam Blake The Tyger And Walt Whitman Poetry The two poems that have to deal with the philosophies of human nature are William Blake’s â€Å"The Tyger† and Walt Whitman’s â€Å"Song of Myself.† Blake’s poem is based off the Romantics and Walt Whitman is an American Naturalist that is based off free verse a form that he created. William Blake’s poetry is considered through the Romantics era and they access through the sublime. The Romantics poetry through the sublime is beyond comprehension and spiritual fullness. A major common theme is a nature (agnostic religion). In William Blake’s poem â€Å"The Tyger† he describes the tiger as a creature that was created by a higher power some time before. In Blake’s poem he questions, â€Å"What immortal hand or eye/ Dare frame thy fearful symmetry?† (Blake 22-23). He describes the tiger as a form of symmetry that can be seen as evil, yet have intriguing features such as those that make the tiger a beautiful creation. Blake also questions if that the higher being who created the tiger also created all else around the world such as a human being. Blake shifts his first stanzas from the tiger to the creator. Not only is he questioning who created the tiger, but he is also describing the beauty and evil of the world. The beauty that the Romantics believe in is nature and one evil seen through the world is materialism that distract humans from the beauty of nature 's gifts. He believes that people lose touch with spirituality when haven’t given to nature. Blake also illustrated his own works throughMod2 Week 1 Hand in Assignment Review of Oviatt and... MOD2 WEEK 1 HAND IN ASSIGNMENT REVIEW OF OVIATT AND McDOUGAL'S "Toward a Theory of International New Ventures" Oviatt and Mcdougall in their paper, Toward a Theory of International New Ventures, tried to identify and define International New Ventures in the context of the global marketplace. Their work gained global acclaim in its bid to pose questions about the validity of existing theory on internalization. A decade later, Zahra’s work titled â€Å"A theory of international new ventures: A decade of research† attempts to build on prominent aspects of the work of Oviatt and McDougall with the hope of highlighting their important contributions to the field of international new ventures. I will attempt to highlight the areas where Zahra’s work To understand whether the actions carried out was rational or whether it did more harm or good, it is necessary to review the development of RDS in a preterm baby. Neonatal RDS is a condition of increasing respiratory distress commencing at or shortly after birth (BAPM-2006). It’s the single most important cause of morbidity and mortality in preterm infants (Greenough, et al 2004). Typically RDS affects preterm infants with the incidence being inversely proportional to the gestational age (Stewart 2005) Approximately 60% of those born before 28 weeks gestation are affected (Fraser, et al 2004) Incidence also increases in infants of diabetic mothers those born via elective caesarean section (Fraser, et al 2004) and perinatal asphyxia (Rodriguez, 2003). RDS is characterised by tachypnoea, nasal flaring, intercostal and sub costal in drawing with sternal retraction and a predominantly a diaphragmatic breathing pattern and a characteristic expiratory grunt or moan and cyanosis without oxygen, all persisting within 4-6 hours of delivery. Diagnosis can be confirmed by history, blood gases showing impaired respiratory function and an X-ray film showing ground glass appearance and air bronchograms (Fraser, et al 2004) RDS is caused by a defective or delayed production of surfactant in structurally immature lungs. Surfactant is a complex mixture of phospholipids and proteins secreted by the typeThroughout recent history, our planet’s climate and environment has slowly been changing due to the many effects of global warming. Unfortunately, global warming has been an ongoing issue for decades. Between 1956 - 2005, the average Earth’s temperature rose .13 degrees Celsius per decade (Amadeo, par. 1). Not only did the average temperature of the climate increase, but the average temperature of the ocean increased as well. Ever since 1978, the ice caps have been melting at a rate of 2.7% per decade (Amadeo, par. 2). Climate change has been a constant reminder of our planetary warming. Even though these problems have been present for so long, people are not realizing the gravity of this issue. Global warming and sea level rise are not only causing the climate to change; they are also negative ly affecting organisms and habitats, the economy, and various coastal regions. It is undeniable that our planet is changing and getting warmer. The temperatures are rising; ice caps and glaciers are melting; sea levels are increasing, and natural disasters have been occurring more and more frequently. Years ago, scientists assumed that if planetary warming could be maintained below two degrees Celsius, perils such as sea level rise could be avoided (Carey, par. 1). However, it seems that this indication wasn’t exactly the case. Ongoing research suggests that three global feedback mechanisms seem to be pushing the earth into a more rapid period of climate change: altered ocean